Elsevier

Applied Energy

Volume 164, 15 February 2016, Pages 99-114
Applied Energy

A comprehensive review of lithium-ion batteries used in hybrid and electric vehicles at cold temperatures

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.11.034Get rights and content

Highlights

  • We present a comprehensive review on lithium ion batteries used in hybrid and electric vehicles under cold temperatures.

  • The weak performances of lithium-ion batteries in cold weather are explained.

  • The influence of low temperatures on the aging mechanisms of lithium ion batteries is discussed.

  • The different uses of thermal strategies in an automotive application are proposed.

Abstract

Because of their numerous advantages, lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries have recently become a focus of research interest for vehicle applications. Li-ion batteries are suitable for electric vehicles (EVs) and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) because of advantages such as their high specific energy, high energy density, and low self-discharge rate in comparison with other secondary batteries. Nevertheless, the commercial availability of Li-ion batteries for vehicle applications has been hindered by issues of safety, cost, charging time, and recycling. One principal limitation of this technology resides in its poor low-temperature performance. Indeed, the effects of low temperature reduce the battery’s available energy and increase its internal impedance. In addition, performance-hampering cell degradation also occurs at low temperatures and throughout the entire life of a Li-ion battery. All of these issues pose major difficulties for cold-climate countries. This paper reviews the effects of cold temperatures on the capacity/power fade of Li-ion battery technology. Extensive attention is paid to the aging mechanisms of Li-ion batteries at cold temperatures. This paper also reviews several battery models found in the literature. Finally, thermal strategies are detailed, along with a discussion of the ideal approach to cold-temperature operation.

Introduction

Currently, hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) and electric vehicles (EVs) promise a future of green travel in which fuel-consuming engines are replaced with electric motors, thus reducing our dependence on fossil energy and ultimately producing less harmful emissions. Such vehicles can be plugged in at home overnight or at the office or in a parking space during the day, using electricity that is generated at a centralized power station or even by renewable sources. The key component to the achievement of these electrical systems is the energy storage system, namely, the battery technology.

The lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery has been the most common choice for telephone communication and portable appliances because of its many advantages, such as high energy-to-weight and power-to-weight ratios (180 Wh/kg and 1500 W/kg, respectively) and low self-discharge rate [1], [2]. In addition, among all rechargeable electrochemical systems, Li-ion technology is the first-choice candidate as a power source for HEVs/EVs. However, this technology is still delicate and affected by numerous hindrances, such as issues of safety [3], cost [4], recycling [5], and charging infrastructure [6].

Currently, another issue preventing the wide-spread adoption of EVs and HEVs in cold-climate countries (Canada, Russia, and the Scandinavian Peninsula) is their low-temperature operation. Despite the additional energy consumed for cabin heating, the limiting factor is most closely related to the significantly reduced energy and power capabilities of Li-ion cells. Fundamentally, decreasing the temperature of such a cell causes a slowdown of the chemical reactions, affecting the charge-transfer kinetics [7] and leading to low electrolyte conductivity [8] and a decreased diffusivity of lithium ions within the negative-potential electrode (anode) [9]. These limitations reduce the available energy and power of the cell and also cause global performance failure in Li-ion batteries at low temperatures [10].

In addition to poor performance, the anode undergoes a more prevalent and hazardous mechanism at low temperatures: lithium plating [11]. The net effect of the cold is high polarization of the graphite anode, which brings the anode potential close to the potential of lithium metal [12]. In this case, slow lithium-ion diffusion into graphite (anode potential) leads to the plating of metallic lithium during charging [13]. Under these circumstances, lithium plating occurs on the electrode surface, thereby reducing the energy and power capabilities of the Li-ion battery and causing severe battery degradation.

Recently, thermal strategies for cold battery operation have breached the market of hybrid and electric vehicles as a result of the difficulties induced by the effects of cold discussed above. Interest in these strategies has considerably intensified and generated many studies concerning the cold-weather operation of electrochemical systems. For instance, some such studies [14], [15], [16] have considered warming the cell before operation using a heating system powered by either an external source or simply the battery itself.

To simulate and validate these new battery thermal management systems and to enhance the energy performances of battery packs, various electro-thermal models and aging models have been developed.

This paper reviews the effect of cold temperatures on the performance of Li-ion batteries. The low-temperature aging mechanism is briefly considered. Furthermore, insights into thermal modeling investigations are provided; these include descriptions of the aging models. Finally, based on an analysis of the literature, the state of the art of Li-ion thermal management systems for optimal performance in winter applications is summarized.

The remainder of this paper is organized as follows: Section 2 presents the effects of cold on Li-ion batteries. Section 3 describes the thermal and aging models. Section 4 discusses the state of the art in battery thermal management. Finally, conclusions are given in Section 5.

Section snippets

Effect of cold effect in Li-ion batteries

The performance and life of Li-ion batteries are both affected by their temperatures of operation. Generally, they suffer significant losses in subzero-temperature environments because of reduced energy and power capabilities as well as severe battery degradation due to lithium plating. The purpose of this paper is to document the effects of cold weather on Li-ion cells from two perspectives: performance loss and aging.

General organization

Battery models are necessary to describe the features of the Li-ion battery. They are also the first step in the conceptualization of algorithms or management schemes for the implementation of a battery management system (BMS). They mathematically describe the parameters that influence the efficient use of the battery, such as voltage, load current, and temperature.

Modeling the dynamics of a vehicle battery system is essential in a BMS for monitoring, estimation, diagnosis, and control, but it

Thermal management strategies for Li-ion batteries

Li-ion cells, especially when used in EVs under varying operation conditions, require elaborate battery thermal management strategies to guarantee ideal operation in terms of performance and lifespan. This is achieved via a battery thermal management system (BTMS). A BTMS is composed of systems that may be either active (external or internal sources of heating and/or cooling) or passive (natural convection) and can also be categorized into systems based on air, liquid, and phase-change

Conclusion

In this paper, a brief review of the effects of cold temperatures on Li-ion batteries is presented. This review illustrates why Li-ion batteries are currently regarded as the best choice for clean vehicle applications. However, this technology faces two major problems with regard to low-temperature operation: performance loss and degradation. These hindrances have slowed the expansion of the EV market, particularly in cold-weather countries. Therefore, an ideal thermal management system is

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